The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878
Causes and Effects of Russia's Struggle Against Ottoman Turkey
Apr 22, 2009
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 had numerous causes relative to Turkish domination of parts of the Balkans as well as a strong Russian Panslav movement. Declaring war in March 1877, Russia, under Alexander II, enjoyed initial successes but suffered severe setbacks at Plevna. Reaching the outskirts of Constantinople in 1878, Russia, fearing British and Austrian intervention, agreed to submit claims to a European Congress held in Berlin. The Russo-Turkish War produced few gains yet cost many lives.
Causes of the Russo-Turkish War
An 1875 revolt against Turkey in Herzegovina stirred the hopes of Russian-backed Panslavism. As the revolt spread to Bosnia, Russians of various backgrounds called for intervention and war. Panslavists, led by Russia’s Ambassador in Constantinople, Count Ignatiev, wanted to see all Slavic peoples under the protective banner of Russia.
Protecting the “oppressed Christians” in Turkish-controlled lands appealed to other sections of Russian society. Led by the Empress Marie, they called for a Holy Crusade. These efforts were supported by military “hawks,” led by the Tsarevitch Alexander. Even Russian revolutionaries and intellectual radicals supported efforts to free the Balkans of Turkish rule.
Perhaps the greatest goal was the opportunity to secure Constantinople, a long-term Russian aim, affecting the balance of power in the region but gaining Russia much desired naval ports.
Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria, following attacks on Turkish villages and garrisons, further angered the Russians while at the same time neutralizing potential British support for Turkey. The fury of Turkish reprisals, which included the massacres of women and children, temporarily gave Russia a public relations victory.
The Battle of Plevna and the March to Constantinople
Russian troops commanded by the Tsar’s brother, Grand Duke Nicholas, cross the Danube and experienced initial success. This was to be short-lived, however, after General Krudener, ordered to take the Turkish position at Plevna, was defeated. The Russians lost 7,000 and were routed. Defending Plevna, Osman Pasha, one of Turkey’s ablest commanders, led 60,000 Turks; Plevna had to be taken.
Facing the Russian army at the approach of winter, Osman faced five days of brutal bombardment. For the next two days, Russian infantry attacked the entrenched positions of Turkish defenders. The Turks were better armed and repulsed every advance. 25,000 Russian lives were lost attempting to take the redoubts and trenches.
Resorting to starving out the Turks, the Russians surrounded Plevna, each side hoping reinforcements would arrive. After 143 days, Osman attempted to break out of Plevna. Over 60,000 men fought each other yet in the end it was Osman who surrendered. 43,000 Turks were taken as prisoners, marched to Russia in appalling conditions. Of a total of 50,000 Turkish soldiers sent into captivity during the war, only 12,000 returned home.
The Russian army advanced to Adrianople and reached the outskirts of Constantinople. Finally heeding the often temperamental advice of Queen Victoria, Lord Beaconsfield dispatched British war ships to the Sea of Marmara, within sight of Constantinople. Britain would not permit the Russian Bear to occupy the strategic city.
The Berlin Congress and Otto von Bismarck
The Treaty of San Stefano concluded between Russia and Turkey ceded vast amounts of Balkan lands to Russia. This was unacceptable to Austria as well as Britain. Under intense pressure, the Russians agreed to submit the treaty to a Congress of the Great Powers to be held in Berlin under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck.
The results were far from encouraging in terms of Russian interests. Bulgaria was divided and Bosnia-Herzegovina where place placed under Austrian administration. Failure to accept the terms of the Congress could result in war with Britain and Austria, a prospect totally repugnant to Tsar Alexander II and his 85-year old Foreign Minister, Prince Gortchakov.
The Russo-Turkish War, like the earlier Crimean War, demonstrated Russia’s inherent weaknesses and exposed the so-called “Russian Steam-Roller” as a myth. The war did little to enhance the sagging prestige of Alexander II, whose failed leadership was blamed on his preoccupation with a mistress.
Sources:
- Virginia Cowles, The Russian Dagger: Cold War in the Days of the Czars (Harper & Row, 1969)
- David MacKenzie and Michael W. Curran, A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond, 4th ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. 1993)
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